Trans Type EN 7
Chapter 7: A Study of Lu Xun's Short Stories Translation from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence:Taking Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang's English Version of Kong I-Chi as a Case
功能对等翻译视角下的鲁迅短篇小说翻译研究-以杨、戴夫妇的《孔乙己》英译本为例
秦建安 QinJianan, Hunan Normal University, China
Abstract
Lu Xun, chief commander of China's modern cultural revolution, is not only a great thinker and political commentator but the founder of modern Chinese literature. Kong I-Chi is one of the masterpieces of Lu Xun's novels. Although the total number of characters is less than 3,000 words, Lu Xun exposes the nature of feudal ethics and its negative influence through his character portrayal, which is loved by many readers home and aboard. The main reason why this thesis takes Yan Xianyi and his wife Gladys Yang’s translation as a research object is that it is not only faithful to the original text, but so as close as possible to the original text in terms of syntactic structure and wording. Therefore, his translations once became the authoritative version of Lu Xun's novels. From the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory, this thesis conducts translation research on the English translation of the famous writer Yang Xianyi, analyzing whether the translation is functionally equivalent to the original text and construe the English translation of prose from the lexical, syntactic, and semantic level to try to explore the translation strategies, styles and methods of Kong I-Chi which aims to explain the functional equivalents in Lu Xun's short novel translation.
Key Words
Functional Equivalence Theory; Lu Xun; Kong I-Chi;translation method
摘要
鲁迅，作为中国近代文化大革命的总指挥，不仅是伟大的思想家和政治评论家，还是中国现代文学的奠基人。孔乙己是鲁迅小说的代表作之一。虽然总字数不足3000字，但鲁迅通过其人物刻画，揭露了封建伦理的本质及其负面影响，深受海内外读者的喜爱。本论文以杨宪益夫妇的译文为研究对象的主要原因是它不仅忠实于原文，而且在句法结构和措辞上尽可能接近原文。因此，他的译本一度成为鲁迅小说的权威版本。本论文从奈达的功能对等理论出发，对著名作家杨宪益的英译本进行翻译研究，分析译文是否与原文功能对等，从词汇、句法、语义层面试图探讨孔乙己的翻译策略、风格和方法，旨在解释鲁迅短篇小说翻译中的功能对等。
关键词
功能对等，鲁迅，孔乙己，翻译方法
Title
A Study of Lu Xun’s Short Stories Translation from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence: Taking Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang’s English Verison of Kong I-Chi as a Case Study
Introduction
This chapter will be expanded with respect to the research background, its significance and the methodology. The literature review will also be included which describes the previous studies on the Functional Equivalence Theory and previous translation versions of Kong I-Chi.
Research Background and Significance
As the most famous writer in modern China, Lu Xun has a decisive bearing on the modern history of Chinese literature. Lu Xun settled in a period of transformation in Chinese literature. His short stories are different from modern short stories in terms of text and expression. Kong I-Chi was written in 1918 when there was a turmoil in China. At that time, although the imperial examination system had been abolished, the education system had not changed, and many scholars had not shaken off the shackles of feudal tenets.
Kong I-Chi enjoys high reputation at home and abroad and has been translated into English, Japanese, French, Russian and other languages. Compared with other language versions, the English versions enjoy a wider spread and have deeper influence. In 1954, the couple Yang and Dai translated it into English and published Selected Stories of Lu Xun in which Kong I-Chi was included. Yang Xianyi and his wife Gladys Yang are great translator beyond all doubt. They are knowledgeable and familiar with Chinese and Western cultures also have devoted their life to translating excellent Chinese and Western literary works. Through their translation, we can better master the author's own novel intentions.
Methodology
In recent years, the translation of traditional Chinese literary works was attached great significance by both Chinese and foreign scholars. As an important part of ancient Chinese culture, though, it is a common genre in Chinese and foreign literature, the short novels cannot be neglected. For translators, how to deal with the modern and balance Chinese and Western cultural differences has become a salient problem. It is not only necessary to understand the characteristics of modern Chinese literature, but also to be very familiar with Chinese and Western cultures for the translator. Functional Equivalence Theory is put forward by American linguists Eugene Nida. According to him, two different languages represent two different cultures which will never be the same, but translation is a kind of communication between the two cultures and translators should try their best to achieve functional equivalence between the two languages rather than seek for rigid correspondence when making translation, which can accurately reproduce the source culture in the target language and eliminate cultural differences. It puts forward a new attitude to treat different languages and cultures, promoting language communication and mutual understandings among people. Thus, taking Nida’s theory as guidance, this research is meaningful not only for translation studies, but also for cultural exchanges.
Literature Review
As one of Nida’s major contribution to contemporary translation studies, Functional Equivalence Theory has brought about heated discussion among scholars at home and abroad since its birth. Many momentous works of Nida also have been translated and introduced into China, such as Nida on Translation edited and translated by Tan Zaixi (1999) and Language and Translation translated by Cai Yi (1985) which of them aroused great repercussions in Chinese translation field. As the prototypical member of Functional Equivalence Theory, receptor’s response theory draws scholars’ attention. Zhang Xiujuan (2015) points out that “receptor’s response theory breaks the tradition of Chinese translation that translators pay much attention to the text but may ignore the response of readers, and provides a new perspective for Chinese scholars to make studies on translation theories”.
Kong I-Chi, as the most typical character in Lu Xun's novels in the teaching textbooks of Chinese junior high school students, has left an indelible impression in the hearts of Chinese people. The most recognized translators of Kong I-Chi include Yang and Dai, Lyle William and Edgar Snow. The translation of Lu Xun's novels during the period of Yang and Dai reach its heyday. For a long time, domestic and foreign publishing houses have published works translated by the couple. Since Edgar Snow lived in the same age as Lu Xun, his translation is closer to Lu Xun's life background. It wasn't until 1990 that the American scholar William Lyell's new American translation was published, and the new stage of the English translation of Lu Xun's novels began. The British English version translated by Yang and Dai is elegant and idiomatic, giving readers the good impression of pure British English.
Theoretical Framework: Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory
Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory
The Original of Functional Equivalence Theory
Nida's main academic activities unfold around the translation of the Bible. In the process of "Bible" translation, Nida started from reality and developed a set of his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. In 1964, Nida (1964) put forward “dynamic equivalence” in Toward a Science of Translating, and gave it specific definition in The Theory and Practice of Translation (1969). In the mid-1980s, “dynamic equivalence” was replaced by “functional equivalence” to avoid misunderstandings on the term “dynamic”, which was the origin of Functional Equivalence Theory.
The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory
The most important and the most intractable part in Functional Equivalence Theory is the disposal of message. The theory requires that the message in receptor’s language must be consistent with the source language. In such a translation, translators should strive to “reproduce as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original”. Later he successfully applied the research results of modern linguistics to translation theory which also reciprocally pushed his theory forward. There are three stages in the development of Functional Equivalence Theory. (Nida 1964: 159)
The first stage is that starting from the essence of language; he used semantic theory to make an objective and accurate analysis of the referent and associative meaning of words. In Nida's point of view, various language structures have great similarities, and the deep structure is far more common than the surface structure. Therefore, the translation of the deep structure between languages can ensure the fidelity of the translation to the greatest extent. At the same time, the surface structure of the translation is freely expressed through the deep structure conversion which can ensue smoothness of the translation as much as possible. The faithful and fluent translation presupposes conditions for the equivalence of receptor’s response, which makes it possible to realize functional equivalence.
The second stage is that the theory was prone to lay its foundation on information theory. Nida held the view that translation is the activity of converting information expressed in one language into information in another language, which is, converting information of one code into information of another code. The translation plays a communicative role in transmitting information. Only when the target reader obtains the same amount of information as the original reader can the relationship between the target language recipient and the target language information be basically the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original source information. Nida noticed that there is a receptive gap between the original reader and target reader especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language families and different cultures. Thus, in order to improve the amount of the receptor’s information as much as the original reader’s, Nida emphasizes the translator can moderately change the form of the original text to provide a better understanding for receptors.
On third stage, Nida tended to embellish his theory from the perspective of social semiotics. Nida insisted that the translation means translation meaning, and semiotics is the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. In the book "Language, Culture, and Translation", Nida pointed out that social semiotics studies all codes and codes of human society, and its focus is on the most comprehensive and complex symbol system used by mankind-Language. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, no translation method is as comprehensive as the social semiotic translation method.
Nida also recognized that there would never be complete equivalence and it was just a quaesitum. With further development of Functional Equivalence Theory, he thought that it has different degrees of adequacy and on that basis he put forward two levels of functional equivalence — the maximal level and the minimal level of equivalence. The former refers to “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”, but this is just an ideal state which cannot be achieved especially when there are huge cultural and aesthetic differences between the two languages. While the latter means “the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”, and translation below this level can never be accepted. According to Nida, if a translation is between these two levels, it can be regarded as a good one.(Nida 1993: 118)
Basics of Functional Equivalence Theory
Receptor’s Response
In recent years, translation researchers have paid more and more attention to the study of literary translation from the perspective of receptor’s responce. When translators are working on translation, they are increasingly unable to ignore the reader's feedback on the translation. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, translation theorist Nida said that only when the reader accepts the translation can the translation be truly completed. Therefore, when translating, the translator cannot ignore the acceptability of the translation. The translator builds a bridge between the original author and the reader of the target language through translation, and it is the translation that can clearly reflect this bridge role.
Receptor’s Response Theory draws attention to the reader and the reading process, rather than the author or the text. Pat Mora and James Welch define it as: "The theory emphasizes the importance of the reader's role in text understanding." The same description also appears in many of Nida’s works in which the importance of “receptor’s response” is emphasized repeatedly.
There are five corn concepts in Receptor’s Response Theory. The first comes to the gap and blanks which was pointed out by the German literary theorist Wolfgang Iser. He said that readers cannot get completely accurate information from the text, and those uncertain information need to be filled in by the reader himself. Such uncertainty occupies another very important position in this theory. This concept includes those vague factors, such as gaps and blanks. This kind of uncertainty encourages readers to add their own ideas when reading, so there is usually more than one understanding of a literal work. The third point is implicit reader also proposed by Isel, as opposed to the actual reader, which refers to the intended reader set by the writer himself who can concretize the text. Isel points out that the implicit reader is not the actual reader, but a reader that the author expects to design in the creative process, that is, the implicit recipient. It is a certain character that the artist conceives and pre-sets based on his experience or hobbies. The forth part is the identity theme. In other words, the work itself has no fixed objective meaning; only when the reader reshapes the work out of his own identity theme and the reader replicates his own fantasies during the reading process, the work can be given meaning. The last point is the interpretative group which was put forward by Stanley Fish. It refers to people who share the same interpretation strategy as we have. In a known context or reader group, the interpretation of the work meaning is the product from the group.
Principles for Producing Functional Equivalence
To achieve the closest natural equivalence between the source language and target language, Nida put forward six principles as the guidance of different kinds and degrees of adjustments:
1. When the translation that strictly keeps the form of the source text makes receptors misunderstand the designative meaning, changes need to be made in the translated text, or a footnote should be added for further explanation if literal translation is still be selected.
2. When the translation that strictly keeps the form of the source text doesn’t make sense, changes should be made in the translated text unless the source text is aim to be obscure. In this situation the obscurity can be reserved and be further explained by adding a footnote.
3. When the translation that strictly keeps the form of the source text is so semantically and syntactically difficult that average readers may give up the attempt to understand it, changes should be made in the translated text and the nature of the changes needs to be indicated in the introduction or footnote.
4. When the translation that strictly keeps the form of the source text causes significant misconceptions on the associative meanings of the source text or huge loss in the appreciation for the stylistic values of the source text, changes should be made to reflect the associative meanings of the source text.
5. The way that a translation is to be used (such as a drama to be read or acted on the stage) is of great significance to the extent to which changes are to be made.
6. A source text that must be translated together with accompanying codes (such as songs and operas) generally requires numerous adjustments in all aspects, including phonology, lexicon, syntax, and discourse. (Nida 1993: 125-128)
Introduction to Lu Xun and Kong I-Chi
Lu Xun and the values of Kong I-Chi
To read and translate Kong I-Chi, you must first understand its author-Lu Xun.
Lu Xun is a great writer. Mentioning classical literary works, no matter what innovative methods are adopted, whether realistic, romantic, or magical, the content should be close to life, reflect the reality of times and speak for the people. In terms of form, literary works should conform to the inherent rules of literary creation-forming a unique artistic style and achieving the perfect unity of truth, goodness, and beauty. Lu Xun's works fully meet the above requirements. Lu Xun is also a famous thinker. Indeed, Lu Xun did not specifically study thinking or modes of thinking, nor did he have advanced theoretical monographs, but he, like thinkers in ancient and modern times, both at home and abroad, used suspicion and criticism as spiritual swords to explore truth and reveal. He held the view that it was his duty to awaken the sleeping souls of the Chinese people with literary works of various genres. The depth and breadth of his thinking is even higher than that of some contemporary thinkers. This is well reflected in his work Kong I-Chi.
Lu Xun, who is a revolutionary, has a precious characteristic, that is, the purity of his revolutionary original intention. Lu Xun leaned towards socialism under the white horror of the low ebb of the Chinese revolution. What's more commendable is that as a sober realist, Lu Xun never conceives any romantic illusions about the revolution. No matter what difficulties the revolution encounters, Lu Xun always has an optimistic belief in the prospects of the revolution.
From a general perspective, Lunatic's Diary is more macro and image specific than Kong I-Chi, while Kong I-Chi starts from the micro level, depicting the poor people at the bottom of society who was bullied and oppressed and lost their dignity as human beings. In addition, there are many opinions in the critics. For example, Mr. Lu Xun's Kong I-Chi was written to criticize the feudal imperial examination system, and some people think that it was sent out to criticize the “dark” old society. The famous critic Lin Zhihao believes that this novel is not only to assail at the corruption of the feudal imperial examination system, but also to reveal the persecution of people’s spiritual and ideology by the feudal education system in the dark old society. The social reality was that most scholars had been ruthlessly “eaten” up by the environment. When the shackles of thinking have been broken, we can dig into the deep meaning under the surface of Kong I-Chi, that is, the process of literati's loss of personality and the process of redemption under the background of the dark society of feudalism. Although the tragedy is redemptive, the process is also accompanied by a fall.
Study on the Translation of Kong I-Chi
Kong I-Chi is a masterpiece of Lu Xun. The novel was created in the winter of 1918, published in the sixth volume of "Italic textNew Youth" in April 1919. (刘家鸣1992: 15). Kong I-Chi is Lu Xun's most satisfying work (孙伏园等2000: 58), and it is also one of Lu Xun's novels that English translators are vying to translate resulting in an amount of English translation.
So far, there are eight translations of Kong I-Chi: 1)A British man E.H.F.Mills translated Con Y Ki from Jing Yinyu's French translation (Mills 1930: 42-50), included in The Tragedy of Ah Q and Other Contemporary Chinese Short Stories published by George Rutridge Bookstore in London in 1930; 2) The English translation of K’ung I-chi by the American Jin Shouzhuo (G.A.Kennedy 1932: 14-15), which was later included in Isaacs (Isaacs 1974: 25-32) edited by Yi Luosheng; 3) K’ung I-chi translated by Lin Jijin (Lin 1935:3-4); 4) Unsigned version of The Tragedy of K'ung I-Chi (Anonymous 1936: 2-3); 5) K’ung I-chi was co-translated by American journalists Edgar Snow and Yao Xinnong; 6) later comes to Yang Xianyi and Gladys's translation K'ung I-chi (hereinafter referred to as "Yang Translation") (Yang & Gladys 1960: 40-46); 7)Then, famous American sinologist William Lyell translated Kong Yiji (Lyell 1990: 42-48); 8) other translation of Kong Yiji was produced by British sinologist Lan Shiling ( Lovell 2009: 32-36).
This article focuses on Yang's translation, trying to explore Yang and Dai's translation strategies, styles and methods of Kong I-Chi from the lexical, syntactic and semantic levels, and aims to explain the functional equivalence in the English translation of Lu Xun's short stories.
Analysis of the Translation of Kong I-Chi from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence
Lexical Analysis
There are many cultural-loaded words in the original Kong I-Chi text, such as this. Culture-loaded words are deeply imprinted by the region and era of a certain language society which express things and concepts peculiar to a certain culture. Such words as “进学” and “秀才” not only carry rich cultural connotations, but also exist only in a certain culture which may be blank in another culture. It is this characteristic which is “I have and you do not have” that often becomes an obstacle to cross-cultural communication and translation. From the perspective of Functional Equivalence, this thesis will analyze how these words are handled in Yang's translation.
In the sentence “幸亏荐头的情面大，辞退不得”, the word “荐头” was translated into “someone influential” by Yang and Dai. “荐头” is the person who introduces works to other people in ancient China. Such person is absolutely influential. But for reader, such influential people may be a nobleman or someone who is very authoritative in the area which may result in discrimination. The job introducers also can be regarded as common people instead of the influential. From the perspective of Functional Equivalence, Yang’s translation explicitly showed the deep meaning with loss of cultural characteristic. The phrase “之乎者也” was translated into “archaisms” which stands for the use of an archaic expression. In Chinese, the original meaning of “之乎者也” is four auxiliary words commonly used in classical Chinese. Therefore, the word "之乎" also refers to the basic abilities that a scholar should possess. Later, it is used to ridicule the scholar who only knows how to analyze words while cannot solve practical problems. Functional equivalence theory requires efforts to create translations that not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. The word “archaisms” corresponds exactly to the description of Kong I-Chi in Lu Xun’s story who is a nerd.
Other prototypical cultural-loaded word is “进学”. Yang translated it into “pass the official examination”. As a link in the imperial examination system in ancient China, “进学” means that the children of the Qing dynasties who can pass the examination will be admitted to the prefectural and county schools. Such system is unique to China. To achieve functional equivalence, that is, to allow non-native readers to understand this special cultural mark, the translator must explain this cultural phenomenon as much as possible or find a corresponding expression in the foreign language culture. The same in the word “秀才” on this sentence “你怎的连半个秀才也捞不到呢?” “秀才” also belong to the imperial system. “秀才” is a subject for selecting officials in ancient China, and it was once used as a special name for school students. Yang translated it into “passed the lowest official examination”. As the minimum requirement of the ancient imperial examination system, those who passed the selection examination were called “秀才”. According to Nida’s theory, it perfectly expresses the ancient Chinese imperial examination system, and at the same time allows foreign language readers to understand Kong I-Chi’s knowledge
Syntax Analysis
In terms of syntax, the differences in sentence patterns between English and Chinese are the most salient. English emphasizes hypothesis while Chinese emphasizes parataxis, which leads to the conversion of sentence patterns in the process of translation. According to Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, if the change in form is still insufficient to express the meaning and culture of the original text, the translation technique of "reconstruction" can be used to resolve cultural differences and make the source language and the target language equal in meaning. "Reconstruction" refers to the conversion of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, the cultural connotation of the source language article is explained by the vocabulary of the target language.(Guo 2000: 67)
In Kong I-Chi, when Kong I-Chi took our his money and ordered some food, other people started to sneer at his revenue sources and said “你一定又偷了人家东西了!” The exclamatory sentence in the original text showed others' affirmation of Kong I-Chi's theft. Yang translated it into “You must have been stealing again!” Here we can notice the tense of the two sentences. Lu Xun used the past tense in original text, which expresses that Kong I-Chi's stealing is an established fact. However, Yang used the present perfect continuous tense when translating. In English, the present perfect continuous tense manifests that something the subject has done in the past is still being done, and may continue in the future, expressing the continuation of an action. There is no need to add any other additional descriptions, just from this tense, readers can realize everyone's thoughts on Kong I-Chi's theft. Such reconstruction of tense verifies the application of Functional Equivalence Theory in turn.
Afterwards, these people who deprecated him refuted Kong I-Chi's maintenance of himself, saying: “什么清白?” In Yang's translation, it is translated as “Pooh, good name indeed!” In the original text, it is originally an interrogative sentence, but Yang transformed it into an exclamation sentence, added English slang “pooh” in it and translated “清白” into good name. If the interrogative sentence in the original text is literally translated into "what’s the innocence", the comic effect, that is, everyone's disdain for Kong I-Chi in the exclamatory sentence will not be achieved. The sentiment contained in the original text is successfully conveyed through the conversion of sentence patterns.
When describing Kong I-Chi’s knowledge background, the original text mentioned: “幸而写得一笔好字，便替人家钞钞书”. In Yang’s translation, he didn’t directly translate it into a verb phrase instead of into a noun phrase which was “Happily, he was a good calligrapher.” Knowing the characteristics of English and Chinese languages, he metonymically recreated dynamic Chinese verb clauses into static noun clauses.
Semantic Analysis
How to eliminate cultural differences as much as possible so that the semantics of the original language can be perfectly embodied? From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, the translator needs to transform the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language which requires translator to use the corresponding vocabulary in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can accept the translation more easily. For example, in the original text, the sentence “因为他姓孔，别人便从描红纸上的 ‘上大人孔乙己’这半懂不懂的话里，替他取下一个绰号，叫作孔乙己” includes an allusion: 上大人孔乙己 which refers to a character in the card game popular in ancient China. In such card game, the characters always are drawn in a red paper. For children in ancient China, the card game was easy to play and was a childhood memory.
In Yang’s translation, he translated it into “As his surname was Kung, he was nicknamed ‘Kung I-chi’, the first three characters in a children's copybook.” Such translation omits a lot of information from the original text, such as “描红纸上” and “半懂不懂”. But Yang gave a substitute for the omission: he explained the game allusion about children which can be regarded as a strategy that helps foreign readers better understand how Kong I-Chi comes.
Another illustration is the translation of this sentence: “孔乙己，你当真认识字么？” It seems fairly easy for common people to translate it with “Kong I-Chi, do you really know words?” , while Yang gave a different version: “Kung I-chi, do you really know how to read?” In our cognitive concepts, if a man knows how to read a word, then he must know this word. But if he knows the word, he may not only know how to read it, but even know how to write it. Such special mechanism is called conceptual metonymy. Yang metonymically narrowed the scope of the meaning of the word “认识”and accurately positioned the meaning of this understanding according to the context. The translator abandons the equivalence of form and achieves the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation.
Conclusion
This article selects Yang’s translation of "Kong I-Chi" as the study case, and analyzes the translation effect from three aspects: lexicon, syntax and semantics, combined with Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory. It is believed that the translator flexibly uses a variety of translation methods to deal with the differences between English and Chinese languages, and the translation has realized functional equivalence as a whole.
At the lexical level, the translator adopts the naturalization method when translating the proper nouns of " Kong I-Chi ", adding notes to individual words. The translation perfectly conveys the meaning of the original vocabulary.
At the syntactic level, when there are differences in the expression of English and Chinese sentences, the translator will split the sentence, adjust the subject and object of the sentence, change the sentence structure and the sentence order to make the translation conform to the expression of the target language where the translation is smooth and natural. When translating the allusions of " Kong I-Chi ", the translator adopts literal translation and annotations.
In terms of semantics, the translator uses the mechanism of conceptual metaphors to accurately show the original flavor.
This article believes that the success of Yang’s English translation of "Kong I-Chi" lies in its fluent, natural language and exotic flavor. The author and translator of " Kong I-Chi " are both famous artists. The translation case from the English translation of "Kong I-Chi" reflects the practical application of the Functional Equivalence Theory in Lu Xun's novels. The writer also hopes that this thesis can provide ideas and inspirations for the English translation of other Lu Xun's novels.
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