LANG2022 LIST OF FINAL EXAM PAPERS

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• Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
• Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学.

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卞王倩 202170081563 Europeanized Chinese and Cultural Factors Behind it CE

Introduction

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曹姣 202170081564 A Brief Talk on Court Culture in Tang Dynasty from the Perspective of the Poem -- Take Changhenge for Example. --Cao Jiao (talk) 07:45, 11 May 2022 (UTC) MW

Research on court culture in the Tang Dynasty from the perspective of poem -- take Changhenge for example 从诗歌视角浅谈唐朝宫廷文化——以《长恨歌》为例 曹姣CaoJiao

Introduction

Definition

1.Court Culture As the special residence of the empire, and the core of the state’s political power, the palace plays an extremely important and special role in the development of human society, especially in ancient Chinese society. Compared with the study of court history, the study of court culture is especially weak. As an organic part of the whole social culture, court culture has not only one side associated with other aspects of social culture, but also one side of its own particularity. The study of palace culture can not only enrich our understanding of the whole social culture, but also enable us to obtain a new perspective on the development of palace literature and art. Therefore, it is very necessary to strengthen the study of palace culture, no matter for the overall study of cultural history or literary history.

As for "court culture", historians and cultural historians seem to have not made a clear definition and interpretation of it. While Liu Zunming, a famous scholar from Hubei University, believes that palace culture should be composed of material culture and non-material culture, and is the sum total of lifestyles, ideology and products created by the imperial aristocracy. Then the scope of court culture should include court architecture, politics, system, economy, religion, education, literature and art, lifestyles in court and so on.

2.The poem the Everlasting Regret and its author Changhenge, also known as The Everlasting Regret(长恨歌), with a romantic realistic means, interprets Li Longji(李隆基) and Yang Yuhuan's（杨玉环） love tragedy against the backdrop before and after the Anshi Rebellion（安史之乱） in the middle Tang Dynasty; at the same time, it covers a variety of themes, such as eulogizing love, lamenting fate and admonishing Kings. The first part of The Everlasting Regret mainly describes Li and Yang's love story and the lavish and luxurious court life, implying an allegory of the emperor's adultery and mismanagement of the country. The second half is full of poignant and sympathetic description of Xuanzong's（唐玄宗，即李隆基） profound love for her, praising the constancy of their love. The whole poem adopts the realistic writing technique of romanticism, so that the narrative and lyric feelings complement each other, which has become the artistic feature of The Everlasting Regret, and also leaves an endless aftertaste and research space for future generations. What’s particularly valuable is that it contains a lot of information reflecting Tang Dynasty court culture life details, and involves the depiction of characters, women’s dress and makeup, court architecture, music of court banquets and so on. In this sense, The Everlasting Regret as unprecedented literature unseen in 10 centuries, is also of great historical value in the study of court culture in the Tang Dynasty.(c.f: Yao Ronghua 2012,121-127)

Bai Juyi was an ancient realist poet. In many of his works, there are descriptions related to the cultural life of the Tang Dynasty court. These descriptions are not made up out of groundless rumor or supposition, but come from his careful observation and speculation on this kind of subject matter, which makes the descriptions appear meticulous and vivid.

Make-up and headgear in The Everlasting Regret

1. On eyebrow makeup “That she outshone in six palaces the fairest face”（六宫粉黛无颜色）, “Until the Lady Yang was killed before the steed”（宛转蛾眉马前死）, “Willow leaves like her brows and lotus like her face”（芙蓉如面柳如眉） and “Eunuchs and waiting maids looked old in palace deep”（椒房阿监青娥老） these four lines depict the female makeup in the imperial court. In the first sentence, "Fendai"（粉黛） refers to beauties in the imperial palace except for Yang, because aristocratic women in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty often adorned their faces and eyes with makeup. However, the two words "fen"(粉) and "dai"（黛） have their own meanings respectively: "fen" is the powder used by ancient women to lighten their complexions; "Dai" is the brunet mineral used when drawing eyebrows, especially in ancient times. According to the differentiated shades, they could produce different eyebrow make-up like black eyebrows or emerald green ones. In this case, “dai” refers to the color of eyebrow make-up. The other three sentences describe eyebrow makeup from the aspect of eyebrow shape, reflecting the two most popular eyebrow makeup forms in the Tang Dynasty – “the willow-leaf shaped eyebrow”（柳叶眉） and “the moth eyebrow”（蛾眉）. The moth eyebrow was the most prominent eyebrow makeup in the Tang Dynasty. It is broad in shape, vaguely ethereal in outline, light and natural in color, and looks like the wings of a moth in appearance, hence the name. As can be seen from the name, the willow-leaf shaped eyebrow is a slender eyebrow makeup similar to willow leaves. It is slightly thick in the middle and tapers at both ends, which can increase the charm of feminine charm. Historical data did not record Yang wearing willow-leaf shaped eyebrows clearly, but from a host of Tang poetry and painting materials, it is easy to judge willow-leaf shaped eyebrows are one of the popular eyebrow makeup styles in the Tang Dynasty, and whether court ladies or ordinary girls are happy to draw it to present their dignified and beautiful amorous feelings. (c.f: Tian Miao 2003,108-112)

2.On clothing and headgear The description of female jewelry in The Everlasting Regret can be seen frequently, such as " flowerlike face and cloudlike hair, golden-headdressed"（云鬓花颜金步摇）, " golden bird and comb with which her head was crowned "（翠翘金雀玉搔头） and " for him to carry back, hairpin and case of gold "（钿合金钗寄将去）. In these sentences, descriptions like “golden-headdressed” or “Zan”（簪）, " golden bird "（金雀）, "Jade headdress"（玉搔头）, "golden hairpin"（金钗）, " case of jewelry "（钿盒） and other things related to women's headgear. Women’s headgears in ancient China were used mainly for hairstyles, with its original function as hair constraint. With the development of society, the specification of women’s headgear became increasingly complex. Consequently, a new feature appeared: headgear was not only the embodiment of a girl well into her adulthood, a demonstration of wealth, and a sign of social status, but also a part of etiquette. There are four main types of headgears mentioned in The Everlasting Regret: Zan, Chai, Buyao, as well as Dianhe or cases of jewelry (inlaid with gold, silver and jewels).

Zan（簪） is the most antique and widely spread in ancient China, also the oldest appliance for hair constraint in China. In the early days, most of them were made of natural materials such as wood, bamboo, animal bone, stone, etc., with practical function in general. By the Tang Dynasty, due to the social function of Zan becoming more and more obvious, great progress had been made in materials selection, production technology and decorative design, etc., and Zan, made of jade, gold and silver, emerald green feathers, and shells, appeared. On top of the change in material, its decorative graphics have also seen great changes, more complex and delicate.

The main function of the Chai（钗） tends to be a decorative one, compared with Zan. Women decorated hairstyles with them in order to project their charm, and show off wealth and status, so the Chai in the Tang Dynasty became the most important headgear. A set of Chai often contains two pieces each, with symmetrical patterns, inserted in hair with one on the left and the other right. However, women in the Tang Dynasty often wore multiple Chai at the same time, and the number of them varied in light of the height of chignon. The higher the chignon was, the more Chai there would be. Unlike Zan, the foot of the Chai is divided into two sides, which are inserted into the chignon to fix hairstyle, and were called "Chai thighs". In The Everlasting Regret, the sentence “keeping one side of the case and one wing of the Chai" tells that Yang Yuhuan broke the golden Chai into two from the part of the Chai thighs, which well embodies the modeling characteristics of Chai thighs.

Buyao（步摇） is another kind of traditional Chinese women's headgear, which is interpreted in an ancient book as: Buyao, with drooping beads over it, will shake the beads as a wearer is walking. Therefore, the name of "Buyao" is taken from the meaning of "shaking as stepping". The buyao vibrates with the steps of women, and the intertwining of beads, jade, gold and silver makes it appear colorful, which can best reflect the graceful bearing of women's vigor and vitality. By the Tang Dynasty, with the increasing prosperity of the social economy and the increasing extravagance and pomp, the etiquette symbolized in gold Buyao started to tamper among the aristocracy and gradually became popular among ordinary people. The popular shape of Buyao in the Tang Dynasty was like " a gold phoenix, with a bottom at below, a pin at the front, decorated with colorful jade beads shaking as stepping by."(Yao Ronghua,2012)

Court banquets

In addition to embodying the deep love between Yang and Li， those two sentences "in revels as in feasts she shared her lord’s delight"（承欢侍宴无闲暇） and “drunk with wine and spring at banquet in Jade Tower”（玉楼宴罢醉和春） can also reflect the frequency of holding court banquets or banquets for all. Court banquet（宫廷飨宴） generally refers to the feast held by the emperor for rewarding reasons, attended by officials at all levels and envoys from all over the world, in which court music, dance and acrobatics performances on a certain scale would be arranged. If it was on a larger scale, where even ordinary people may attend, it was called "banquet for all"（酺会）, normally lasting for several days. Rulers held banquets for all, also known as "bestowing banquets"（赐宴）, and the whole country was covered in huge hilarity in the banquet hall during the events. Both the aristocracy and the common people could find their freedom and happiness in the private banquet. Concerning the purpose of bestowing banquets, on the one hand, it was to satisfy the cultural needs of the people as well as seek cohesiveness from them; on the other, was to consolidate its feudal regime, demonstrate the rulers' authority and give benefits to the people. (Yang Guoyu,2016)

Palaces and architectures

Among the names of palaces or places mentioned in the poem, some of which are authentic, while some are fictitious for artistic reasons.

“She bathed in glassy water of Huaqing Pool”（春寒赐浴华清池）, “ in lotus-flower curtain she spent the night blessed”（芙蓉帐暖度春宵”）, “her beauty served the night when dressed in Golden Bower ”（金屋妆成娇侍夜）, “drunk with wine and spring at banquet in Jade Tower”（玉楼宴罢醉和春） etc., these parts describe the Huaqing Pool, Golden Bower（Jinwu）, Jade Tower and other palaces or places served as living rooms for the imperial family. These descriptions have three functions: First, they describe the places where Tang Xuanzong and Yang Yuhuan dated and spent time together; Second, the poet describes the content of their life submerged in love, selecting some representative scenes, including bathing in Huaqing Pool, daily feasts and playing scenes; Third, as royal palaces, the poet has depicted the magnificence and glory of these architectures, in order to foil the noble identity of Tang Xuanzong and Yang Yuhuan as Emperor and Keifei(贵妃), and also render their love story.

In the sentences of " Knocking at the western gate of palace hall, he bade"（金阙西厢叩玉扃）, " days and months appeared long in the fairyland halls"（蓬莱宫中日月长）, "Jin Que" or “ Palace Hall”（金阙）, and "Penglai Palace"（蓬莱阁） both are palaces existing only in Chinese mythology, which are set off as the background for the appearance of this imperial concubine. Sentences "love and happiness long ended within the wall of Zhaoyang Palace"(昭阳殿里恩爱绝) and “on the seventh day of the seventh moon when none was near the Eternal Youth Palace(七月七日长生殿)” are still closely related to the theme of the whole poem -- love, indicating Yang’s unswerving love to Li. Among those two sentences, "Zhaoyang Palace" (昭阳殿)refers to the palace where they lived together during those years, while "Golden House"（金乌） and "Jade Tower"（玉楼） are also set off with the sentence " on the seventh day of the seventh moon when none was near the Eternal Youth Palace". These palaces witnessed their sweet love, but this love no longer existed. However, "Penglai Palace" in the poem implied that Yang's longing for Tang Xuanzong was everlasting and would never die away.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, descriptions of women’s appearances and dressings, imperial court life and architecture in The Everlasting Regret were meant to reflect the love between the two, and show us what the history was. On the other hand, regarding this poem as part of the historical materials provides a significant perspective on historical research.

Preferences

• Yao Ronghua姚榕华.(2012).唐代宫廷文化视野中的《长恨歌》研究[Research on the Poem “Changhenge” from the Perspective of Tang Dynasty’s Court Culture].南京师大学报(社会科学版)Journal of Nanjing University (06),121-127.

• Yao Ronghua姚榕华.(2012).《长恨歌》与唐代宫廷文化生活研究(博士学位论文,山东大学).https://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbname=CDFD1214&filename=1013140595.nh
• Yang Guoyu杨国誉.(2016).“开禁”还是“飨宴”?——汉唐北宋赐酺举措缘起、背景与施行动因的再探讨. 北京社会科学(12),4-12. doi:10.13262/j.bjsshkxy.bjshkx.161201.
• Tian Miao田苗.(2003).唐代妇女眉妆演变考论. 西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版)(02),108-112.

Terms and Expressions

The Everlasting Regret 《长恨歌》 the Anshi Rebellion 安史之乱 eyebrow makeup 眉妆 headgear 头饰 the willow-leaf shaped eyebrow 柳叶眉 the moth eyebrow 蛾眉 golden-headdressed; Zan 簪 Chai 钗 Buyao 步摇 court banquet 宫廷飨宴 banquet for all 酺会 bestowing banquet 赐酺 Huaqing Pool 华清池 Golden Bower（Jinwu） 金屋 Jade Tower 玉楼 Jin Que or Palace Hall: 金阙 Penglai Palace：蓬莱阁

崔晓凡 202170081566 China Central Plain Culture

--Cui Xiaofan (talk) 13:01, 15 May 2022 (UTC)

高智慧 202170081568 The History of Chinese Noodles

--Gao Zhihui (talk) 14:04, 27 May 2022 (UTC)

胡良明 202170081570 A Study of the English Translation of Chu Ci by Xu Yuanchong

--Hu Liangming (talk) 02:08, 31 May 2022 (UTC)

黄琼 202170081571 Bamboo Weaving in Yiyang Hunan

--Huang Qiong (talk) 11:45, 28 May 2022 (UTC))

邝雨琪 202170081572 Chinese Mooncake Culture

--Kuang Yuqi (talk) 14:20, 27 May 2022 (UTC)

李思源 202170081575 A Study on Chinese Lantern Culture

--Li Siyuan (talk) 12:30, 31 May 2022 (UTC)

李婷 202170081576 Language Culture in Chinese Cuisine Names

--Li Ting (talk) 02:35, 10 May 2022 (UTC)

李媛 202170081579 Phonetic Loan Characters (tongjiazi) in Chinese Language

--Li Yuan (talk) 09:55, 27 May 2022 (UTC)

李梓婕 202170081580 Confucius Institutes

--Li Zijie (talk) 15:33, 11 May 2022 (UTC)

梁思婷 202170081581 prejudice and culture

Abstract This paper combines the discourse cognitive model discourse social interaction perspective to analyze Hofstede's discourse describing and commenting on the cultural value dimension as a way to reveal the cultural bias embedded in Hoh's model. The analysis reveals that the bias arises mainly from the idea of Western cultural values inherent in the minds of different people and the inappropriate choice of language. The model has been accepted and widely used mainly because the research method and descriptions happen to be in line with the inherent cognitive and intellectual framework of Western society and are easily recognized by Western scholars and readers. Studies have shown that critical discourse analysis is one of the effective tools to reveal the problem of cultural bias in cross-cultural studies.

Keywords: Cultural Value Dimension; Cross-Cultural Studies; Social Interaction Perspective

1. Introduction:

The issue of cultural bias has been the subject of strong criticism by scholars of intercultural communication research, but explicit or implicit cultural bias has never ceased to exist, and Hofstede's model of cultural values is no exception. In cultural studies, Hofstede (1991a) designed and conducted a large scale questionnaire borrowing from the "cultural value dimensions" proposed by Kluckhohn and Strodbeck (1961). Through factor analysis and theoretical derivation of the survey results, four latitudes were identified to distinguish different cultures in the world: Power Distance (PDI), Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI), Individualism/Collectivism (IDV), and the masculinity of society. (IDV), and the masculinity of society (MAS). Although he later added to the model several times (1991b; 1999), he vehemently denied that the study was fundamentally flawed in any way (Mcsweeney, 2002: 90) or that there was any form of cultural bias. The model has been widely and thoroughly discussed by scholars for more than two decades, with both praise and criticism (Lustig However, few scholars have conducted a more detailed micro-analysis of the problems with the model at the level of discourse analysis. To this end, this paper intends to combine van Dijk's model of discursive cognition with Fairclough's perspective on the social interaction of discourse to analyze Hoh's discourse describing the cultural value dimension, reveal the cultural biases embedded in it, and then further discuss how cultural biases are produced/reproduced in Youse-related discourse from a historical and social perspective and legitimization as a way to show that critical discourse analysis is one of the effective tools to reveal the problem of cultural bias in intercultural communication research. Cultural bias as a cognitive process and social activity discourse Cultural bias is an incorrect perception held by people of one culture about people of another culture in intercultural communication research, and in practice it is more often manifested as an unfair attitude, i.e., it is "an acquired tendency, as a result of which people usually react in a consistent (negative) way to a particular group of people or event" (Chen, 2004). (Chen & Starosta, 1998: 40-41). Cultural bias sometimes appears in a visible way, but it is more often latent in language and other contextual factors in an implicit way. Once implicit cultural bias escapes people's attention, it can easily become accepted as discourse spreads and may transform into a power that influences and limits the correct perception of other cultural issues, Said (1999) Language acquisition. The discourse on Orientalism reveals this profoundly.

2.Prejudicial Discourse

Prejudicial discourse is one of the focuses of research by scholars of critical discourse analysis, who not only analyze the prejudices implicit in various specific discourses (van Dijk, 1980, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993b; Fairclough & Wodak, 1997: 266; Teo, 2000; Wodak et al., 1990 ), and also theoretically reflect on the nature of discrimination discourse (Matouschek et al., 1995). These studies suggest that critical discourse analysis is a powerful tool for studying prejudice and racialized discourse and revealing the power relations and inequality factors within it. Although this study focuses on prejudice in cross-cultural contexts, it is believed that critical discourse analysis should have equal validity here as long as relevant (cross-cultural) contextual factors are taken into account in the analysis. In terms of examining the issue of cultural bias in the Hoh model, we believe that Fairclough's perspective of social interaction in discourse should be combined with Van Dyke's model of discursive cognition. As mentioned earlier, the formation of cultural bias is a cognitive process, an incorrect reflection of reality by the mind, and once formed, it influences and changes people's perceptions of social reality by exerting influence on their perceptions. Therefore, the key to explaining this process through discourse analysis is to recognize that there is an interaction between discourse and society and that the interaction between discourse and society occurs only through cognition. Specifically, it is only through the lens of discourse-society interaction that it is possible to understand why cultural biases can permeate Fok's cultural patterns despite his efforts to avoid them and how discursive practices in turn further reinforce the cultural biases within them. However, this perspective does not explain the sources of cultural bias in Hoh's model and the possible consequences for people's perceptions, nor does it explain how cultural bias is constructed at the micro level of discourse and how discourse is linked to thinking. Only by considering cognition as a mediator of the connection between discourse and social reality, as Van Dyke (1993a) does, can we understand that cultural bias is acquired, used, and changed in social contexts, and that it influences the way people behave; that discourse is the most important source of the emergence, development, and change of cultural discourse; and that social behavior, social practice activities, relations of domination, relations of inequality, and power struggles in cross-cultural situations Social behavior, social practices, dominance relations, inequality relations, and power struggles in cross-cultural situations are ultimately expressed in discourse only under the influence of cultural biases and other social cognitive factors. It is for this reason that the analysis of language and discourse strategies at the micro level provides a basis for revealing the cultural biases in Hoh's model, and also shows that discourse analysis should not be limited to the formal analysis of language forms and discourse strategies, but should also focus on the cognitive, social, cultural and historical factors in the production of discourse.

3.Analysis of Hofstede’s Discourse Theory

The main content of the analysis in this paper is Hofstede's descriptions of different cultural value dimensions and related comments in his book The Consequences of Culture: Differences in Cultural Values in the Work Environment (1991a). These descriptions are mainly based on words, phrases and independent sentences, and their related comments are mainly expressed in a few short sentences. Therefore, the main object of analysis in this paper is the semantic units such as the relevant words and propositions in the text, and the analysis will adopt the three steps of description, interpretation and elucidation proposed by Fairclough (1989: 26).

3.1 Lexical analysis

Regarding the potential ability of vocabulary to participate in the construction of discourse ideas, domestic and foreign researchers in discourse analysis (Halliday, 1976; Fowler & Kress, 1979; Trew, 1979; Huang, Ying, 2006 2007; You, Zeshun & Chen, 2009) have conducted many studies and they found that vocabulary is employed not only at the coprime level but also at the ephemeral level to reflect social change and construct ideas, etc. This means that the use of different vocabularies in cross-cultural studies may allow cultural biases to permeate and be accepted in discourse, as evidenced by the following semantic analysis of the vocabulary used by Hoh to describe different cultural value dimensions. It can be seen that the vocabulary used by Hoh to describe both ends of each dimension are two/groups of mutually opposing words or phrases, which can be divided into the following categories. (1) Positive/negative words PDI (L/H): equal rights/privileges; less threatened/potential threatened; more prepared to trust/ rarely trusted; latent harmony/latent confl ict ( Hofstede, 1991a: 94) UAI (L/H): (unsurety) accepted/a continuous threat; not threatening/dangerous; greater tolerance/intolerance; positive and suspected ( Hofstede, 1991a: 140) Clearly, two of the words in the above groups exhibit a positive and negative opposition. This dichotomy can have a significant impact on human perceptions, leading readers to believe that the former is more desirable and the latter less desirable. Cultures that are not "superior" or "inferior" are immediately shown to be superior or inferior when they are modified by these words. (2) Words that support/contradict the spirit of the Enlightenment PDI (L/H): independence/dependence; reward, legitimate, and expert power/ coercive and referent power; redistributing power/dethrone those in power (Hofstede, 1991a: 94) IDV (L/H): emotional dependence/emotional independence; (private life) invaded/ has a right; differ for ingroups and outgroups/apply to all ( Hofstede, 1991a: 171) "Independence, freedom, and democracy" were the themes of the Western Renaissance.

It was promoted by Western thinkers such as Locke, Rousseau, and Kant, and has been appreciated by Western society to this day. Faced with the absolute dominance of Western humanistic and philosophical thought in today's world, these standards have influenced various cultures around the world to varying degrees. The result is that many people reading these opposing terms are likely to come to believe that cultures with low levels of individualism and high power distance are undesirable. (3) Words that support/contradict the Christian creed UAI (L/H): time is free/money (Hofstede, 1991a: 140) "freedom" implies that people focus more on the "feeling of freedom," and "money" suggests that people value the role of "money," indicating uncertainty avoidance. This suggests that societies with a high degree of uncertainty and avoidance are more concerned with acquiring money than with enjoying life itself. This "money" mentality is undesirable in the light of the basic spirit of Christianity (Holy Bible, 1995: 982, 98), so a culture with a low level of uncertainty avoidance is clearly preferable to a culture with a high level of avoidance. (4) Stereotypes of femininity/masculinity MAS (H/L): people orientation/ money and things orientation; quality of life and environment/performance and growth; service/achievement; interdependent/independent; intuitive/ decisive; small and slow/big and fast; fluid sex role, unisex androgyny/ clearly differentiated sex role and machismo (Hofstede, 1991a: 205) As can be seen from the above vocabulary, Hofstede's description of a high/low masculinity culture in society is closely linked to the long-standing image of masculinity/femininity in Western society. In this regard, men are affirmed and women are discriminated against, e.g., women act with emotions (people orientation, not rational) and men act with profit (money Women act on intuition (intuitive) and men act on decisiveness (decisiveness). In addition, cultures with low levels of masculinity are described as fluid sex role, unisex, and androgyny, while cultures with high levels of masculinity are described as clearly differentiated sex role, machismo, and their gender roles are not clear. (machismo), and their gender roles develop normally. Obviously, without considering the contextual factors, there is nothing special about the above-mentioned types of oppositional terms, because, they seem to be simply words that coincide with the most common ways people categorize and judge things. However, when they are put together in cross-cultural studies to describe different cultures, they actually construct an idea of cultural superiority/inferiority (ideology) in one's perception. For example, when describing the individualism/collectivism difference, one can clearly perceive discrimination against the collectivist culture. When the four dimensions are used simultaneously to judge the characteristics of various cultures, these terms more directly create the impression that certain cultures are superior to another, such as Australia, Canada, Britain, Ireland, South Africa, and the United States because of their high degree of individualism, low power distance, low uncertainty avoidance, and high degree of social masculinity." equality" and "democracy". Once these views are subconsciously accepted, people will unconsciously place a culture as superior or inferior first when dealing with and studying different cultures, and use this as a basis for further discussion, preventing them from further considering deeper questions such as whether there are superior or inferior cultures, and how different cultures really are.

3.2 Propositional analysis

Propositions are the smallest independent units of meaning in language and thought, usually expressed by independent sentences or clauses (van Dijk, 1988: 31). Since semantics deals with both meaning and enlightenment, propositions can also be seen as the smallest semantic units that are either true or false in the dimension of denotation. At any time when people want to express their ideas, communicate with others or learn something, they necessarily use propositions, so propositions are closely linked to thinking and social cognition. Because of this, propositions are also inseparable from ideas, "ideas as content are represented and communicated through language, and these are best thought of as propositions or relations between propositions" (Wood, 2004: 39). One of the most widely used ways of making propositions is by implication, i.e., when people's intentions are inappropriate or cannot be expressed clearly and unambiguously, they usually use those more readily acceptable entailments to imply or conceal their true intentions and make others agree on the validity of their assertions. In such cases, listeners or readers may find it difficult to grasp and reject these ideas. Hoh's description of the four dimensions of cultural values often consists of two sentence propositions that form opposites or contrasts with each other and that contain biases against certain cultures, in several categories. (1) Propositions that support/contradict the spirit of the Enlightenment Equality/Inequality PDI: 1a. Inequality in society should be minimized. 1b. There should be an order of inequality in this world in which everyone has his rightful place; high and low are protected by this order (Hofstede, 1991a: 94) Legal/illegal PDI: 1a. The use of power should be subject to the judgment between good and evil. Power is a basic fact of society which antedates good or evil. (Hofstede, 1991a: 94) Independence/dependence IDV. 1a: 1a. Identity is based in the individual. 1b. Identity is based in the social system. 2a. 2a. (There are) autonomy, variety, pleasure, individual fi nancial security. 2b. 2b. (There are) expertise, order, duty, security provided by organization or clan (Hofstede, 1991a: 171) Normal/ abnormal development of human nature UAI: 1a. Inner urge to work hard 1b. Hard work is not a virtue per se. (Hofstede, 1991a: 140) MAS: 1a. Work to live. 1b. Live to work. (Hofstede, 1991a: 205) Since the Enlightenment, "equality" and "freedom" have been considered by the West as two basic principles for judging the justice of a society (Rawls, 2003: 61), and "legitimacy Legitimacy" is the basic criterion for the exercise of power by elected leaders in a "democratic" society (Huntington, 1998: 9), and "autonomy" is the basic right of civic life. Work is an intrinsic need for the healthy and full development of human nature, but when hard work becomes the only means of earning a living or exploiting others, it is detrimental to human nature (Otero, 1994: 353, 357). (2) Propositions for/against consumerism Competitive/non-competitive UAI: 1a. Confl ict and competition can be contained on the level of fair play and used constructively. 1b. Conflict and competition can unleash aggression and should therefore be avoided" means they can not. (Hofstede, 1991a: 140) MAS: 1a. (To show) sympathy for the successful achiever. 1b. (To show) sympathy for the unfortunate. (Hofstede, 1991a: 205) Cooperation/non-cooperation PDI: 1a. Cooperation among the powerless can be based on solidarity. 1b. Cooperation among the powerless is difficult to bring about because of low faith in people norm. (Hofstede, 1991a: 94) Commentators have repeatedly pointed out that the world today is entering a "consumer society", where "all people have entered the market, and they are both consumers and commodities" (Bauman, 2004: 91). This trend is due to the increasing size of multinationals and the decreasing number of companies, which has led to a few mega-multinationals holding most of the production and distribution capacity of the capitalist world (Fairclough, 1989: 35). MNCs have been able to survive mainly because they are more productive and able to enhance cooperation among their colleagues and improve their own competitiveness. The coexistence of competition and cooperation has had such a significant impact on areas other than production and distribution, including social life, that "being cooperative" and "competitive" are considered by most people to be good qualities for individuals in a consumer society. People who lack these two qualities are considered to be defective. (3) Bravery/Cowardice UAI: 1a. More willing to take risks in life. 1b. Concern with security in life. (Hofstede, 1991a: 140) The promotion of risk-taking is a common feature of almost all cultures, and heroic deeds are one of the major themes in the creation of various works. Thus, those who "willing to take risk" are often revered for being "very brave" and those accustomed to "living with security" (concerned with security) are despised for their "cowardice". Obviously, all the above-mentioned b propositions imply negative connotations, and the culture described by these propositions will undoubtedly bear a negative mark. Moreover, from a propositional perspective, cultural bias does not exist only in the description of the cultural value dimension. In fact, to make his cultural value dimensions more credible, Hofstede also discusses them specifically in terms of climate, geographical features, history, and level of economic development. Unfortunately, these interpretations and comments also contain cultural biases. Statement 1. in low PDI countries, power is something of which power holders are almost ashamed and which they will try to underplay. i heard a Swedish I heard a Swedish university offi cial state that in order to exercise power, he tries not to look powerful. (Hofstede, 1991a: 93-94) What is power? What is the use of power? Power is "the ability to urge others to do something (as one wishes)," and by studying power, "we can identify who controls what resources and whose interests they serve" (Moore & Hendry, 1982: 127. cf. Thomas & Wareing, 2001: 10), that is, power is about control and benefit. In fact, people compete or cooperate with each other in their daily lives in order to gain power, and no one will refuse to be given more power, nor will those who control power be "ashamed to have it in their hands. However, "they may try to keep a low profile" because "power is only acceptable if it covers up most of its energy. The success of the use of power is directly proportional to its own ability to conceal the mechanisms of power" (Foucault, 1981: 86. cf. Fairclough, 1992: 51). Thus, the Swedish university official "tries not to look so powerful" not because he is ashamed of being in control, but as a strategy for exercising power; a culture with a small power distance is as unlikely to consider "being in control and exercising power" a "shame" as a culture with a large power distance. "It is only that they differ in the way they exercise power. Statement 2. The differences in stress (between high MAS and low MAS) on achievement are also present in the school system. For example, school For example, school performance in Germany (high MAS) is an important issue; there is strong pressure for performance, which in extreme cases can lead to suicide attempts among students who fail. In the Netherlands (low MAS), for example, the amount of pressure for performance is much less; anything that looks like competitive pressure is socially disapproved. Suicides among young people occur, but rarely because of failed exams. (Hofstede, 1991a: 206) The analysis shows that Huo's model of cultural values is implicitly culturally biased, yet his model has gained popularity in the field of cross-cultural studies. This contradictory phenomenon compels us to further consider how the cultural biases in his model are produced and how they are reproduced and transmitted in discursive practices. In response to the first question, we believe that there are two main reasons for the production of cultural bias in Fok's model: the Western cultural values inherent in Fok's own mind; and his inappropriate choice of language. Here, we do not mean to say that he is a Western cultural centrist who is full of discrimination against non-Western cultures. Quite the contrary, we consider him to be a cross-cultural researcher who opposes cultural discrimination, as evidenced by his research methodology that employs large-scale questionnaires and data analysis methods to avoid subjective factors. However, as a scholar who grew up and was educated in the West, he could not completely avoid the values inherent in Western culture, thus making himself eventually fall into the trap of Western cultural ideas. The most typical of these is that his cultural value dimension is based on the Western "dualistic cognition". This way of cognition distinguishes the world as either "black" or "white," "good" or "bad," or "right" or "right. "Therefore, the distinction between his cultural model and specific societies can only be binary. In addition, his description of the "degree of male socialization" is biased against societies with "low male socialization" due to the influence of traditional Western society's discriminatory view of women. Another consequence of these Western cultural values is his inability to choose the precise language to describe the cultural value dimensions. In his descriptions, Fok refers to "less independent", "l e s s t o o", and "less social". "l e s s t o l e r a n c e" exactly as "independent", "intolerance", and uses This is exemplified by the use of independent/dependent and tolerance/intolerance to describe the two cultures. However, we know that the dichotomy, while helping people to quickly distinguish between two cultures, can cause people to overlook the important reality that there are no absolute or essential differences between any two cultures in the world; they are more differences in degree (Wu, A. J.1998). So why is the Hoh model still recognized by industry professionals? We believe that it is because Huo's research methods and descriptions are just "compatible with the cognitive and intellectual frameworks inherent in Western societies and are easily accepted by Western scholars" (van Dijk, 1993a: 107-113). As mentioned earlier, Hoh's research uses a combination of large-scale questionnaires and data analysis, and this combination of quantitative and qualitative research is precisely one of the most common methods used in modern Western social sciences, and is considered by Western academics to be the only research method that can help the social sciences achieve the same level of "precision" as the natural sciences. Therefore, research using this method is considered by many people (especially in the West) to be absolutely "scientific". This notion not only convinced Hoh himself that his research was absolutely free of subjectivity, but also largely removed any doubts about the "scientificity" of his research from other researchers and readers. Moreover, many Western scholars and readers of cross-cultural studies share a similar binary cognitive framework with Fok, which not only makes them feel that there is nothing wrong with Fok's binary description of the cultural dimension, but also that it feels natural. Under such circumstances, it is only natural for them to accept Fok's descriptions and ignore the cultural biases implicit in his discourse. For non-Western scholars and readers, their failure to micro-analyze the discourse and to examine the problems with Fok's model from a social and historical context prevents them from fundamentally dismantling the foundations of cultural bias in the model. Although they vaguely feel that there is something wrong with these descriptions, it is difficult to clearly explain what the problem is, and therefore, they accept Hoh's conclusions in the actual study.

4.Conclusion

A discourse analysis of Hofstede's cultural value model shows that both at the lexical and propositional levels, Hofstede's descriptions and comments on the cultural value dimension imply a bias against certain cultures, especially those that are inconsistent with Western values. This study suggests that we need to be sensitive to the limitations of the use of "widely used" theoretical models, including the cultural biases they imply, when dealing with them. At the same time, from a theoretical perspective, this study demonstrates that critical discourse analysis is one of the effective tools for unraveling the problem of cultural bias in cross-cultural studies.

Reference: [1] Hofstede, G. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in WorkRelated Values [M]. California: Sage Publications, 1991a. [2] Hofstede, G. Cultures and Organizations: Soft-ware of thecMind [M]. London: McGraw-Hill, 1991b. [3] Hofstede, G. The universal and the specific in 21st century global management [J]. Organizational Dynamics, 1999, (3): 34-43. [4] van Dijk, T. A. Macrostructures: An Interdisciplinary Study of Global Structures in Discourse, Interaction and Cognition [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1980. [22] van Dijk, T. A. Prejudice in Discourse [M]. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1985. [23] van Dijk, T. A. Communicating Racism [M]. London: Sage, 1987. [5] 尤泽顺，陈建平. 话语秩序与对外政策建构：对政府工作报告的词汇变化分析 [J]. 广东外语外贸大学学报，2009, (2): 44-49. [6] 吴爱珍. 谈HC和LC文化—Hall文化模式评述 [J]. 外国语, 1998, (4):

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周皓熙 202170081612 Rhetorics in China

Abstract Rhetorics is widely used in every language, aiming to get the best possible expression. The research on Rhetorics is wide worldwide but to go down to the Rhetorics in China, we can name too many. Prior to the early twentieth century, people studied mainly various social sciences, which can be basically grouped into two main categories: The handling of human relationships; Practical problem solving. Rhetoric belongs to the handling of human relationships, which is an important part of general education, a study that determines the ability to communicate efficiently, and a knowledge that is common to the majority of famous historical figures. The text is mainly on introducing the Rhetorics in China in specific ways.

Keywords: Rhetorics China Language Communication

1. What is Xiuci (Rhetoric) Rhetoric is a discipline of linguistics. "Xiu" originally meant to modify and "Ci" meant words used in arguments, and later "Xiuci" was extended to all words. Therefore, the original meaning of rhetoric (Xiuci) is to modify speech. It is also a linguistic activity in the process of using language, using a variety of means to receive the best possible expression. In fact, since the emergence of language, human beings have had the need for rhetoric. For example, it is a way to decorate one's writing and language, to attract the attention of others, to deepen their impressions and to express emotions. Rhetoric, on the other hand, is the art of increasing one's persuasiveness and influence through effective speech and writing. Prior to the early twentieth century, people studied mainly various social sciences, which can be basically grouped into two main categories: The handling of human relationships. Practical problem solving. Rhetoric belongs to the handling of human relationships, which is an important part of general education, a study that determines the ability to communicate efficiently, and a knowledge that is common to the majority of famous historical figures.

2. What is Rhetorics Rhetorics is the study of rhetoric, which is an artistic technique to enhance the effect of words or sentences

2.1 The traditional view of rhetoric: rhetoric is the modification of words and the beautification of language. The so-called "rhetoric", according to its literal meaning, means "modify words". For thousands of years before the establishment of modern Chinese rhetoric, "rhetoric" has always expressed such a meaning, and the study of rhetoric is the study of the means and techniques of decorating and beautifying literature.

2.2 Modern view of rhetoric: rhetoric is the adjustment of rhetoric or the choice of synonymous forms. The publication of Fa Fan 《修辞学发凡》marked the establishment of the modern view of rhetoric in China, which added scientific connotations to rhetoric on the basis of inheriting the traditional view of rhetoric. Mr. Chen Wangdao(陈望道) points out that "rhetoric is originally a means of conveying meaning and sentiment, mainly for the purpose of meaning and sentiment... It is merely an effort to adjust the language and rhetoric to make it appropriate for conveying meaning and sentiment". Here are two points worth noting: one is that rhetoric is the adjustment of "language", while "language" is the opposite of "rhetoric", and emphasize "rhetoric" was to make it appropriate to convey the meaning and sentiment, which means that rhetoric pursues an appropriate language expression that is in line with the meaning of the situation, rather than the pursuit of flamboyance, which corrects the traditional view that rhetoric. This corrects the traditional one-sided idea that rhetoric is the pursuit of magnificent algae. On the basis of this definition, Chen put forward the concept of positive rhetoric, which corresponds to the traditional rhetorical style of rhetoric, and negative rhetoric, which corresponds to the plain rhetorical style of seeking "quality" as opposed to rhetoric.

3. Introduction to the development of rhetoric 3.1 Development of Rhetoric in China From ancient times to modern times, the study of Chinese rhetoric has ignored the rhetorical phenomena in oral language and popular literature, and the object of study has been the written poems, words, chapters, which was the so-called "elegant words" in the historical canon. The two most influential works are: Liuxie's "Wenxin Diao Long" (刘勰的《文心雕龙》), which was written in the early 6th century AD, at the end of the Qi Dynasty and the beginning of the Liang Dynasty(南朝齐末梁初), and consists of 10 volumes with 50 articles. The 5 essays in volume 1 are a general discussion of the origin and basic principles of rhetoric and chapters, and play on the basic ideas of "The Quality of the Text and the Phase of the Capital"(《质文相资》). The 20 articles in volumes 2~5 list 20 literary genres, including poetry, fu and other literary genres, as well as historical biographies, treatises, and even practical genres such as imperial edicts, memorial to the throne, etc. Each genre not only describes its origin, but also evaluates the works of its predecessors. The 15 books in volumes 6 to 8 deal with style and technique, including, as we now call it, diction. The following two volumes contain 10 articles on the identification of diction, including a chapter on the relationship between diction and society in the "Preface to the Times"(《时序》). This is a masterpiece that carries on from the past to the future. It is the summary of the study of rhetoric and chapter since the pre-Qin dynasty, and the first to study the study of rhetoric and chapter for more than 1000 years afterwards. 3.1.1 Ancient China Chen Yi's Wen Ze (陈骙的《文则》) was written in the sixth year of Qian Dao in the Southern Song Dynasty (1170). It subdivides metaphors into 10 categories: direct metaphors, metaphors, analogies, interrogative metaphors, pairs of metaphors, wide metaphors, simple metaphors, detailed metaphors, quoted metaphors, and virtual metaphors(直喻、隐喻、类喻、诘喻、对喻、博喻、简喻、详喻、引喻、虛喻), which is the most detailed of ancient rhetorical works. It does not only talk about what should be, but also what should not be, or what should be in what situation. It also talks about the rhetorical effect of words that are used in the rhetorical sense. These are important additions to the various works on rhetoric sinnce the "Wenxin Diao Long", and they have influenced later generations to modern times. It is believed that the Wenzhi is the first monograph on rhetoric in history that is worthy of the name. Beginning with Ouyang Xiu's "Liuyi Poetic Discourse"(欧阳修的《六一诗话》) in the Northern Song Dynasty, a large number of works on poetry, words, and literary discourse and works on essay composition appeared one after another through the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties. 3.1.2 Modern times and before the founding of New China In the early 20th century, around the time of the May Fourth Movement, there was a major development and breakthrough in the study of Chinese rhetoric. It was mainly manifested in two aspects. First, it introduced or referred to the rhetoric of Europe and Japan, and began to establish a systematic rhetoric of Chinese. The second is the gradual introduction of modern Chinese rhetoric, which is the object of study of modern vernacular languages. From the 1920s to the 1930s, a number of monographs on rhetoric appeared one after another. The following three kinds can be cited as representatives: Tang Yue's "Rhetorical Patterns" (1923)(唐钺《修辞格》). It mainly refers to the traditional European rhetoric and is devoted to rhetorical patterns (see Rhetorical Patterns). Chen Wangdao's " Fa Fan" (1932) (陈望道《修辞学发凡》). This book refers more to Japanese rhetoric, but has its own originality. It inherited and carried forward the tradition of referring to flaws and mistakes in Wenze and Wang Ruoxu's Hu Nan Ru Lao Ji （王若虚《滹南遗老集》）of the Yuan Dynasty, and distinguished rhetoric into positive and negative rhetoric; it inherited the tradition of ancient writings on rhetorical techniques such as metaphor, exaggeration, and even-likeness, and referred to the rhetorical grammar of the East and West, and classified them into 38 grammars; these have had great influence on the study of Chinese rhetoric since then (see Chen Wangdao). Wang Zhen's "Rhetoric of the Chinese Language" (1935) (汪震《国语修辞学》) is entirely in the vernacular. In the first chapter it is stated that "Mandarin rhetoric is limited to the standard Chinese language, which is neither a dialect of a certain place, nor a Classicial chinese language that can be used for reading only... We are living human, and we speak living human's words. If we could use living human words vividly without mistakes and misunderstandings, ' Rhetoric of the Chinese Language' could be counted as useful" This point was in tune with the historical situation of the Mandarin movement at that time. 3.1.3 After the Establishment of New China After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, there were some new developments in the study of rhetoric. Those parts of the Wenzhi and the Hu Nan Ru Lao Ji that correct errors and refer to fallacies, as well as those parts of Rhetoric Fa Fan that are summarized as negative rhetoric, are intertwined with grammar in many places. The interrelationship between grammar, rhetoric, and even logic is closer in a non-formal language like Chinese than in Western languages. This fact was gradually perceived by the scholars of linguistics, which led to the conception and attempt to combine them for the purpose of application. In 1951, Lu Shuxiang and Zhu Dexi published their "Address on Grammar and Rhetoric"(吕叔湘、朱德熙《语法修辞讲话》). The so-called rhetoric here is more focused on the negative rhetoric described in "Rhetoric Fa Fan", which is told in conjunction with grammar. In the preface of the monography, it is clearly stated that the main task of the book is to "correct the errors and the vulgarities" (see Address on Grammar and Rhetoric). In the 1950s, there were more references to Soviet academic developments. At that time, the Soviet rhetoric community had a distinction between rhetoric of language and rhetoric of art. In view of the fact that ancient Chinese rhetoric had a tradition of speaking about syntax and word syntax, and the close relationship between grammar and rhetoric in Chinese, some people also made an attempt to refer to the so-called linguistic rhetoric, and to incorporate certain elements of word usage and sentence formation into rhetoric in terms of positive expressive effects. In the 1960s, the linguistic community initiated a study of rhetoric in the Chinese Language(《中国语文》). In the 1960s, a discussion on rhetorical research was initiated in the Chinese Language. Some new ideas, attempts and visions emerged. In 1979, Guo Shaoyu's New Inquiry into Chinese Grammar and Rhetoric(郭绍虞《汉语语法修辞新探》) was published. This was another work that attempted to integrate grammar and rhetoric. In the 1980s, the study of Chinese rhetoric was revitalized. Many scholars of the younger generation were exploring new ideas from different perspectives. Some of them are exploring Chinese rhetorical techniques, especially rhetorical patterns, more extensively and deeply; some of them are focusing on the comprehensive study of modern Chinese, including the study of modern Chinese rhetoric and rhetorical monographs; some of them are focusing on the study of rhetoric in the works of modern and contemporary writers; some of them are trying to explore practical rhetoric, or essayology, which is closely related to writing training; some of them are focusing on the different communicative functions of different genres. Some of them focus on the so-called functional rhetoric, which explores the different communicative functions of different genres; some focus on the so-called discourse linguistics, which is at the edge of grammar and rhetoric, with the use of coherent language as the object of study, and so on. It will take time to mature. However, the situation already makes people foresee that one or several new systems of Chinese rhetoric are being nurtured and some new fields are being opened up.

3.2 Development of Rhetoric in the West In the West, the development of rhetoric has roughly gone through four periods: (1) the period of flourishing, from the fifth century B.C. to the second century A.D.; (2) the period of stagnation, from the gradual decline of the Roman Empire in the second century to the eve of the Renaissance; (3) the period of ups and downs, from the sixteenth century to the early nineteenth century; and (4) the period of innovation, from the early twentieth century to the present. 3.2.1 The period of prosperity From the fifth century B.C. to the second century A.D., there was a period of rhetorical prosperity in ancient Greece and Rome. In this period, rhetoric was integrated with oratory and separated from dialectic. It was the art of persuasion, the study of the means of persuasion and the way of debate, and focused on three types of oratory: political deliberation, courtroom debate, and ceremonial ornamentation, including the five major components of argument, arrangement, style, recitation, and delivery. There were famous courtroom orators, eloquent orators and teachers of rhetorical persuasion, such as Croax, Gorigas and Cicero, while Aristotle's Rhetoric and the Roman writer Quintilian's Principles of Oratory are the classics of this discipline and the source and mainstream of Western rhetoric. The systematic study of the art of persuasion was born in Sicily as a result of the courtroom debates that emerged from the political revolution that overthrew the oligarchy and established democracy. Colas and Tisias were the first renowned teachers of rhetoric who taught young people the art of persuasion, and although their teaching was not systematic, it nevertheless included a variety of techniques and training and arrangements useful for oratory. The great impact of eloquent rhetoric on the public is well demonstrated. Later, Goghias further developed the rhetorical ornamental features of rhetoric and developed a style of prose filled with beautiful verse, metaphors, stunning vocabulary, and short sentences with a fine balance of long sentences. As E. M. Cope points out in his book The Rhetoric of Aristotle, sophistry rather than truth, and the splendor of vocabulary rather than the rationality of argument were the goals of the early teachers of rhetoric. In contrast, Socrates, the great eloquent speaker of truth, was not a mere pile of rhetoric, but rather a masterful use of question and answer techniques. The fundamental difference between Socrates and the teachers of rhetoric, however, is that they had very different goals in mind. Whereas the aim of the rhetorical teachers was to teach young people how to gain power through eloquence, Socrates taught them the way to truth. Rhetoric, Gogicus declared, is the art of persuasion in the courtroom and in the council. For Socrates, on the other hand, rhetoric was not a real art, but merely sophistry. In his monograph Rhetoric, Aristotle gives a clear definition of rhetoric: rhetoric is the art of discovering ways of persuasion in any subject matter, and can be applied to various methods in prose and poetry, such as debating, moral, emotional, and just methods. He divided three types of speeches: (l) the political municipal style, which is applied to parliamentary and municipal meetings, etc., (2) the courtroom debate style, which is applied to courtroom arguments, and (3) the ceremonial algory style. In the book, he also explores some rhetorical patterns, such as explicit metaphors, metaphors, and similes. And paying attention to different levels of audience, he argues that the speech is not only composed of the speaker and his topic, but also includes the audience that the speaker faces. 3.2.2 The period of stagnation From the gradual decline of the Roman Empire in the second century, through the long Middle Ages, to the eve of the European Renaissance, this was a period when Western rhetoric went from flourishing to stagnation and even degradation. Although rhetoric, grammar and logic were included as the "three arts" and occupied an important place in the university curriculum at this time, rhetoric had no great achievements either in theory or in practice. 3.2.3 The period of ups and downs The Renaissance revived classical rhetoric, and from the sixteenth century to the early nineteenth century, rhetorical monographs and textbooks were produced. Leora

wrote The Art or Craft of Rhetoryle, and Thomas Wilson published The Art of Rhetoric. However, they can be broadly divided into three categories, namely: the traditional school, which adheres to the classical rhetorical model; the French school of Peter Ramus, which focuses only on phrasing and stylistic style, while attributing logic to the establishment and layout; and the school of rhetoric, which is mainly interested in the naming and classification of rhetorical patterns. The whole rhetoric was too much in favor of rhetorical classification and tedious mechanical methods, and gradually fell into decline. So much so that Samcul Butler, the 17th century English satirist poet, ridiculed the rhetoricians for their entire code of rules and regulations, which was nothing more than teaching people to name the tools in their hands.

3.2.4 A period of innovation In the early twentieth century, the development of modern linguistics, modern Western philosophy, psychology, aesthetics, and literary criticism created the conditions for the emergence and development of modern rhetoric. But the revitalization and innovation of Western rhetoric really began in the 1930s. The French linguist Charles Bally, in his Traite de Stylisique Francaise, published as early as 1905, explored the expressive power of the various elements of the linguistic system. The English linguist Richards. (In his book The Philosophy of Rhetoric, I.A. Richards proposed that the new rhetoric he advocated is the study of "the understanding and misunderstanding of words and their remedies. "In order to delve into the various ways of expressing ideas, it is necessary not only to discuss the different effects of processing the larger units of discourse on a macro level, but also to examine the basic units of meaning and their interrelationships on a micro level. He advocated that if the key to the old rhetoric was "persuasion," the key to the new rhetoric is that both sides of the communication seek to be intellectually, emotionally, and attitudinally The key to the new rhetoric is that both sides of the communication seek to "equate" in terms of reason, emotion, and attitude, whether in terms of intention, structure, style, or wording, as a rhetorical device to produce the desired effect in the reader's audience. At the same time there is the Belgian philosopher Chiam Perelman who advocates a "new rhetorical school" based on persuasion and debate. In addition, the phenomena of style and expression have become a common subject of interest for linguists and literary critics. In Western Europe and the United States, stylistics has emerged as a linguistic theory and approach to the study of language and style. In the former Soviet Union, the study of various functional corpora, especially literary corpora, has become the main body of modern rhetoric. The use of mathematical and statistical methods, the rise of discourse chapter rhetoric, and the interdisciplinary study of rhetorical theory and rhetorical phenomena have added vitality to modern rhetoric and made it increasingly systematic and diversified.

4. Introduction and examples of Chinese rhetoric There are 63 major categories and 79 subcategories of rhetorical devices. It is a way to improve the effect of language expression by modifying and adjusting statements and using specific expression forms. I will introduce several Chinese Rhetoric methods in the following part. . 4.1 Metaphor 1、Definition Metaphor, i.e. a rhetorical method that indicates two things of different degrees of similarity between each other, using one thing to compare another thing. 2、Structure A simile is generally composed of three parts, namely, the subject (the thing or situation being compared), the metaphor and the simile (the iconic word of the metaphorical relationship). 3. Classification According to the similarities and differences of the three parts of the metaphor structure and the implicit features, there are four types of metaphors. (1) Explicit metaphors. Both the body and the metaphor appear, and the metaphorical words "like, like, if, as if, as if, as if, like, as if ......, as if ...... The metaphors are connected by the words "like, as if, as if, as if". The common form is "A is like B". For example, the leaves come out of the water very high, like the skirt of a pavilion dancer. (2) Allusion. The metaphor is connected with the metaphor "is, becomes, constitutes". A typical form is: "A becomes B." For example, the square is a sea of snow-white wreaths, and the monuments have been piled up into snow-white hills. In addition, there are some variants of allusion to be noted ① Modifying allusion: The metaphorical relationship between the subject and the metaphor is realized in the form of modifying and being modified, restricting and being restricted. For example. This is a sea of flowers. ②Implied metaphor: The metaphorical relationship between the subject and the metaphor is expressed in the form of the same compound reference. For example: Old King, don't pour soup. ③Commentary metaphor: The metaphorical relationship between the subject and the metaphor is expressed in the form of commentary, often connected by dashes. The siren sounded. The lid of the red brick "can" - the iron door pushed open ...... (3) metaphor. The metaphor is a direct description of the metaphor, without the presence of the body and the metaphor. The typical form of metaphor is "A for B". For example, the most detestable ones The snakes and beasts have eaten up our flesh and blood. (4) Metaphors. Several metaphors are used together to describe an object. For example: A huge white lilac put its flowers on the gray 8 corrugated roof, like snow, like jade, like splashing waves. (5) Back metaphor:Also known as mutual metaphor, it is a form of metaphor that uses metaphor as the ontology and then uses the ontology as the metaphor to set up metaphors with each other. It has a twist and turns, which can enhance the artistic impact. Example 1: The street lights were bright from afar, / as if they were shining with countless stars. / The stars in the sky are now, / as if they were lit with countless street lamps. ("The Market in the Sky") Example 2: At that time, the mine made a terrible rattling sound, like thunder, no, more terrible than thunder. (The Dialogue of Coal) (This is a kind of roundabout metaphor, which proposes the metaphor "thunder", then negates the metaphor, and finally proposes the metaphor again. After affirming, negating and negating again, it strengthens the distinctness of the metaphor.) Example 3: My teacher took my small hand with her big gentle hand and didn't let go of it for a long time. I knew that my teacher was expecting my answer, my vow, my progress. It was, a warm stream injected into my heart! No, it was a spring rain that sprinkled me with my head held high. (Such a flat affirmation, a steep suppression and denial, and then a sudden affirmation, back and forth, so that the lyric dripping.) 4、Role (1) metaphorical reasoning is simple and easy to understand, so that people can easily accept. (2) The metaphor can make something badly imagined concrete, and it can be illustrated by other similar things, so that people can understand it more clearly. (3) Metaphors can make the general things visualized and give people a deep impression. (4) It plays the role of modifying the article. (5) to make things image, vivid, highlight the characteristics, render the atmosphere, side by side. 5、Composition conditions The subject and the metaphor must be essentially different things, otherwise, it is not a metaphor. If a sentence is not a metaphor, you can't look at the metaphor alone. The following are a few examples of sentences that are not metaphors. (1) His character is like his mother - similar things for comparison (2) It's dark and dreary as if it's going to rain - an expression of speculation (3) Do not go to work with the burden of thought - the metaphorical meaning of the word 6、Commonly used metaphors like, as if, if, as if, like, seem, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, like, as the same, into, is, into 4.2 Exaggeration 1. Definition In order to achieve a certain expression effect, the method of deliberately expanding or reducing the image, characteristics, function and degree of things is called exaggeration. 2. Types (1) Enlargement exaggeration. It is a form of exaggeration that deliberately makes things "bigger, more, higher, deeper, stronger". For example: The difficulty of the Shu Road is more difficult than the sky. (2) Narrowing exaggeration. Deliberately put the objective facts "small, small, low, shallow, weak" and other exaggerated techniques. For example: Wumeng pounding away the mud pills. (3) Exaggerate ahead. The future results of a thing may appear in the future to describe the present state of this thing, or the future state of a thing to the present state before the exaggeration technique. For example, the farmers said, "When I see such green wheat fields, I can smell the fragrance of white bread." "The powdered face contains the power of spring without revealing it, and the lips of the dan are smiling before they open." (Cao Xueqin, "Dream of the Red Chamber", Qing Dynasty) 3. Role Distinctly express the author's emotions and attitudes towards things, highlight the essential features of things, set the mood, enhance the infectious power, and enhance the vividness of language. 4. Attention to problems when using (1) Exaggeration is not pompous, it must be reasonable and not detached from the basis and foundation of life. (2) exaggeration and the truth must have a certain distance. Otherwise, it is not clear whether it is telling the truth or exaggerating. (3) exaggeration should pay attention to the application of the occasion. Serious reports, reports, scientific and technical explanatory articles, reasoning articles and other styles of writing, should not use the rhetoric of exaggeration. 4.3 Prose Arrange three or more sentences that are similar in structure and length, consistent in tone, and related or identical in meaning. Effects: To strengthen the rhythm and atmosphere of the language, to enhance the rhythm and organization of the text, and to facilitate the expression of strong feelings (expression effect). To enhance the language momentum, to highlight a certain feature of something, to express a certain emotion of the author. Example sentence: Their quality is so pure and noble, their will is so tough and strong, their temperament is so simple and humble, their mind is so beautiful and broad. 4.4 Repetition In order to highlight a certain meaning and emphasize a certain feeling, a certain word or sentence is intentionally repeated. Repetition is to repeat certain words or sentences in order to emphasize a certain meaning or highlight a certain emotion, and the focus of expression is on the repeated words or sentences. Function: It is mainly used in poetry to express strong emotions by repeatedly chanting. At the same time, the rhetorical technique of repetition can also make the format of the poem neat and orderly, but also undulating, full of linguistic beauty. ⒈ continuous repetition (no other words in between). Example sentence: the valley echoes, he just left, he just left. ⒉Repetition Example sentence: as if the loss of the three provinces, the more the party state is like a country, the loss of the three eastern provinces who do not sound, the more the party state is like a country.

4.5 Pairs A pair of phrases or sentences with equal number of words, the same or basically the same structural form, and symmetrical meaning, expressing two opposite or similar meanings. Effects: neat and proportional, rhythmic, highly general, easy to remember, and musically beautiful. Main ways. 1、Pairing. The upper and lower sentences are similar, similar, complementary, and contrastive in meaning. For example, the reed on the wall is heavy at the head and light at the bottom; the bamboo shoot on the mountain has a thick mouth and a hollow stomach. 2、Opposition. The pairing of the upper and lower sentences that are opposite or opposed in meaning. For example: . Cross-eyed cold to a thousand fingers, bending the head willingly for the children's cattle. 3、String pair (running pair). The upper and lower sentences have the meaning of succession, progression, cause and effect, assumptions, conditions and other relations of the couplet form. Example sentence: . I drank the water of Changsha and ate the fish of Wuchang. 4.6 Questioning In order to attract the attention of others, deliberately ask a question first and then answer it yourself. Strong emotion. Effects: To attract attention and inspire readers to think; to make the hierarchy clear and compact; to allow better description of the characters' thought activities. Strengthens the tone, highlights what is going on, expresses a certain emotion of the author. Example sentence: Why is the flower so red? It has its material basis in the first place. 4.7 Rhetorical question Also called provocative question, rhetorical question, cross-examination. It expresses a definite meaning in the form of a question, a negative in the form of an affirmative rhetorical question, and a positive in the form of a negative rhetorical question. Effects: To strengthen the tone, to make people think, to stimulate the reader's feelings, to deepen the reader's impression, to enhance the momentum and persuasive power of the text. To strengthen the tone, highlighting what is, expressing a certain emotion of the author. Examples What about me, don't I have something to blame? 4.8 Borrowing Instead of directly stating the person or thing to be expressed, borrow someone or something closely related to it. Types of borrowing: feature instead of thing, concrete instead of abstract, part instead of whole, whole instead of part. Effects: To highlight the essential characteristics of things, to enhance the image of language, to make the writing simple and concise, language rich in variety and humor; to draw people's imagination, so that the expression receives the effect of outstanding image, distinctive features, concrete and vivid. Methods. ①Part for the whole. That is, the representative part of the thing is used in place of the main thing. For example, the green hills on both sides of the shore are opposite to each other, and a lone sail comes by the sun. --- "Looking at Tianmen Mountain ②Replacement of the whole with characteristics. That is, to use the borrowed body (people or things) characteristics, signs to replace the name of the body things. For example: If you love fine waist and pink legs, you have a dance floor. (Mao Dun, "Words of Modernization") ③ Concrete instead of abstract. That is, the abstract concept is replaced by a concrete thing related to the abstract concept. For example: The beacon in the South is in its tenth year. --(Three Chapters of Meiling) (4) Tool instead of ontology. For example, when the earth is plowed in the season of jingxing, eight out of ten families have already lit up the bottom of their hoard and cannot uncover the pot. --The Rice of Elm Money ⑤ The proper name is used instead of the general term. The name of a typical person or thing is used instead of the name of the thing itself. For example: If you kill one Li Gong Park, millions of others will rise up! -- "The Last Lecture" Identification of metaphor and borrowing 4.9 Antithesis The original meaning is expressed in words or sentences that are opposite to the original meaning, to enhance the effect of expression by saying the opposite. Some of them are sarcastic and revealing, while others express close and friendly feelings. For example: (The foreign students in the Qing Dynasty) also have disbanded braids, coiled flat, and remove the cap, the oil can be seen, just like a little girl's hair bun, and twist the neck a few times, really beautiful. ("Mr. Fujino") 4.10 sense The rhetorical method of using the psychological phenomenon of mutual communication of various senses to describe and express one sense to another. Function: The use of generic sense can receive evocative effects, and its expressive effect is irreplaceable. It can turn abstraction into image, so that readers can better understand; it can evoke rich associations from this to the other; it can be unconventional and lively; it can express accurately and have far-reaching meaning; it can enrich the mood of poetry and constitute a special artistic beauty. 4.11 Puns The use of multiple meanings of words and homophonic (or near-sounding) conditions, intentionally make the statement have a double meaning, the words in this and the meaning in the other, that is, puns. The pun can make the language subtle and humorous, and it can deepen the meaning and give people a deep impression. 4.12 Top Truth Use the end of the previous text for the beginning of the following, the first and last connected more than twice, so that the adjacent statements or fragments or sections pass down to the next, the first and last cascade, expressed in symbols is "ABC, CDE". This rhetorical technique is called top-true, also known as thimble or joint pearl. The use of top-true rhetoric, not only can make the structure of the sentence neat, the tone is consistent, and can highlight the organic link between things interlocking. 4.13 Intertextuality Also called intertextuality, it is a rhetorical method often used in ancient poetry. In ancient texts, the meaning belonging to one sentence (or phrase) is divided into two sentences (or phrases), and the meaning of the upper and lower sentences are explained to complement each other, which is intertextuality. The ancient explanation of it is: "The reference to the mutual text, containing and seeing the text." Specifically, it is a form in which the upper and lower sentences or two parts of a sentence, which seem to say one thing each, actually echo each other, elaborate each other, and complement each other, say the same thing. For example. Qin Shi Ming Yue Han Shi Guan 4.14 Loopback To put it simply, to loop is to read the same thing in the same way. The loop is the organization of the preceding and following phrases into the same circular form of shuttle, in order to express the connection between different things. The loop can make the statement neat and proportional, reveal the dialectical relationship of things, and make the language incisive and alarming. For example. The water in the Lingshui Lake rings; the gold in the Golden Valley is golden. The Buddha mountain incense to respect the Buddha mountain; Weng Yuan milk to raise Luyuan weng. 4.15 拈连 The rhetorical technique is called xianlian (niān lián), when two things are described together, the words originally applied only to things A are used to things B. This rhetorical technique is called xianlian, also known as "smooth". The use of the flicker can make the context closely linked to natural, vivid and profound expression. Example Sentences Example (1): Bees are making honey, and they are making life. Example (2): The moon is like a hook when I go up to the west tower alone without words. The moon is like a hook. The lonely wutong tree is locked in the deep courtyard in the clear autumn. Li Yu (A Meeting with Joy) Example (3): Don't look at me as deaf, but my heart is not deaf! ...... 4.16 Comparison 1. Concept The rhetorical way of writing is to simulate thing A as thing B. It includes several forms of writing things as people (anthropomorphism), writing people as crops (anthropomorphism) and writing this thing as another thing (anthropomorphism). In fact, the former form is to "humanize" things, the latter two forms are "object" or "object A B object". 4.17 Parallelism In order to make the sentences compact and concise, the ancients often used the method of parallel mentions to line the text. The so-called "parallel mention" is generally to put two related things side by side in one sentence to express. For example, "Zhong and Li did not commit a single crime, but died". (Shi Ji. This sentence means: "If Zhong did not commit a single crime, he died; if Li did not commit a single crime, he died. (Go away, flee)". If we take the word "death" here as a word to understand it is wrong. According to the historical facts, the one who committed suicide was Dafu Zhong, and the one who fled was Fan Li. 4.18 Transfer Transfer is a rhetorical way to transfer the word used to describe thing A to modify thing B when the two things are related. Example The rhythm of the buildings in the square is actually harmonious. (Using the word "harmony" to describe music to modify "architecture") 4.19 Contrast It is a rhetorical way to compare two opposing or opposite things, or two different aspects of a thing, side by side. The function of contrast is to make the good appear better and the bad appear worse at the same time. There is a man who is alive and he is dead; there is a man who is dead and he is alive. 4.20 Mirroring In order to highlight the main thing, the rhetorical method of describing the things that are related to it first as a companion to set it off. This rhetorical method is divided into positive and negative, according to the relationship between the things that are presented and the things that are set off. The main thing and the accompanying thing change in the same direction. The desolate and depressed environment and atmosphere are used to set off a sad mood. Contrary: The main thing and the accompanying thing change in the opposite direction. Use "...... but I thought the boat was slow" to contrast the eagerness of "I" [2] 4.21 Cascading Cascade is one of the traditional rhetorical patterns in Chinese; cascade is also called gradual, progressive. According to the logical relationship of things, three or more similarly structured phrases, sentences, paragraphs express in the number, degree, scope, etc., the proportion of light and heavy, high and low size of the end, in order to layer increasing or decreasing rhetorical techniques. The layers are divided into increasing (ascending) and decreasing (descending) two categories. Incremental (ascending): the order of the layer of progression, from small to large, from light to heavy, from shallow to deep, from low to high, layer by layer. Decreasing (descending) type: the order of the layers, from large to small, from heavy to light, from deep to shallow, from high to low, decreasing layers. Derived meanings. 1, layer by layer progression. Yan Fu's "original strong": "China's people today, its strength, wisdom, morality, if we talk about it, it is the accumulation of thousands of years of layers of progression, the essence of the mountains and rivers and the terroir of the difference, the guidance of the penal and religious customs of repeated changes, Taojun furnace hammer and into this last one of the realm." 2、Delivered step by step. The Qing dynasty history manuscript - criminal law three: "Where the lawsuit outside the state and county level delivery to the governor, within the total in the three law division." 3、A kind of rhetorical pattern. Use the same or similar structure of the phrase to express the meaning of the progression of layers. For example: after knowing the stop and in the fixed, fixed and can be quiet, quiet and can be safe, safe and can consider, consider and can get. --Zeng Zi, "The Great Learning

Reference [1]姜平: 中西修辞学发展初探[J], 四川教育学院学报, 1998(1), 48-50. [2]许红菊: 汉语修辞与发展[D], 湖北: 华中科技大学，2012.

周哲 202170081613 Confucian Teaching Thoughts

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黄天琪 202170081618 Marriage Culture in China

Marriage Culture in China Huang Tianqi

Introduction

Marriage is something related to all of us. It is the start of family and kinship. Most of our life will be spent within a marriage. And an unhappy marriage will ruin many things. This starts by lowering the quality of our life, then threatening the life of our children, and forming a family without happiness and warmth. Eventually, this will have a bad impact on the harmony of the society. Judging from all these, we can see that how important marriage is to our life and society. Besides, marriage represents not only a union between couples, but also a union of two families. In the past, marriage was often arranged by parents, while today’s young people prefer to choose spouse that they love by themselves. However, it is still common that parents hold sway over the marriage of their children. Marriage culture is a part of social culture, which can reflect people’s mentality and views towards marriage in a particular period. In the following, marriage system, wedding customs, and dissolution of marriage will be covered.

Marriage System

From the earliest group marriage to monogamy, marriage system has become increasingly rigorous, which is conducive to ensuring family stability and social peace. China went through primitive society, slave society, feudal society, modern society, and it is now contemporary society. The characteristics of marriage system in each period are distinctive. From the evolution of our marriage system we can see that each change has been in line with the change in the political and economic system. The marriage system is a guarantee of social stability, and the main evolutionary history includes the following periods. 正文. (Wang 2021:423)如所用句子是引用他人的文章，请在引用部分后标明出处，如是借鉴他人观点，则请标注为(c.f: Wang 2021:423)

References

• Wang Jianhua (2021). The Reception of Liu Cixin's Three Body Problem in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 450 pp.

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伍佳惠 202170081625 Chinese Dragon Culture

--Wu Jiahui

Chinese Dragon Culture

Introduction

The Chinese dragon, also known as long, loong, or lung, is a legendary creature in Chinese mythology, Chinese culture, and Chinese folklore as a whole. For thousands of years, the dragon has permeated all aspects of Chinese society, becoming a cultural cohesion and accumulation. The dragon has become a symbol of China, a symbol of the Chinese nation, and a symbol of Chinese culture. To every Chinese descendant, it carries national emotions.

The creature can be found in the mythology of many ancient cultures, but nowhere else in the world is the creature quite so revered as in China. The Chinese dragon is a benevolent creature that delivers fertilizing rain to the earth. Strength, good luck, and awe-inspiring might are the spiritual meanings of the dragon. The oriental dragon is widely regarded as a spiritual or supernatural sign of heavenly power. As a result, it has long served as the emperor’s symbol.

The Chinese dragon is easily identified by its long serpentine body which is usually wingless, and its anthropomorphic face with beards. The dragon is considered the most auspicious year sign, so the image is embroidered on the robes of emperors, portrayed in the most valuable materials, such as gold jewelry and jade sculptures. In addition, it has endless references in performing arts and literature.

Generally speaking, the dragon was everywhere in ancient China and looms as large nowadays in the Chinese psyche as ever.

Answers

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